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Obesity, a disorder prevalent among today’s population, is a major influencer of human health and wellness. Research suggests that your gut microbial community could influence the risk for obesity. This hypothesis was supported by a recent study that was aimed at developing therapeutics for individuals struggling with weight loss. The study also provides an insight into the role of Gastrokine-1 protein (GKN-1) in obesity. The results suggest that with more research, therapies that focus on the activity of GKN-1 can be developed to provide potential solutions to obesity.
Obesity is a disorder characterized by excessive fat accumulation in the body. Body Mass Index (BMI) is an inexpensive and easy screening method for weight category - underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese.
A BMI over or equal to 30 indicates obesity in adults. BMI is calculated by dividing a person's weight by the square of their height.
Gastro Kinase-1 (GKN-1) is a protein that is produced exclusively and abundantly in the stomach. This protein is resistant to digestion. It passes through the intestine and interacts with microbes in the gut. A study published in Scientific Reports, co-authored by researchers at Indiana University School of Medicine, has reported that GKN-1 levels are linked to body composition.
The study examined the effects of the presence and absence of GKN-1 protein on body composition. It was conducted on two groups of mouse models - one with the GKN-1 protein and one without it. The following parameters were considered:
It was found that mouse models without the GKN-1 protein weighed less and had higher percentages of lean mass, and lower body fat, despite consuming the same amount of food.
Further, when on a high-fat diet, the mice without the GKN-1 protein showed resistance to increased body fat, weight gain, and hepatic inflammation - a causative factor of liver disease. These effects were noticeable and consistent in both the sexes.
Researchers observed that the absence of the GKN-1 protein didn’t result in any adverse effects like cancer, diabetes, loss of appetite, malabsorption, or inflammation.
At this stage, however, it cannot be concluded that blocking GKN-1 protein can prevent obesity. Researchers seem to think of it as a potential therapeutic solution, to improve the quality of life for obese patients.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/05/210504154601.htm
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-88928-8
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/causes.html
https://ourworldindata.org/obesity
https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html
https://atlasbiomed.com/blog/link-between-gut-bacteria-and-weight-loss/#change-gut-microbes
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5470704/
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/improve-gut-bacteria
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5082693/
https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/resources/diseases/obesity/obesedit.htm
Fish oil is one of the most commonly used dietary supplements. It is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. It has been known to protect against heart diseases, lower blood pressure, and lower triglyceride levels. According to a recent study published in the journal PLOS Genetics, the beneficial effect of fish oil on triglycerides is seen only in people with a certain type of genetic makeup.
Triglycerides (TG) are the most common type of fats present in your body. TG are commonly found in foods like butter, margarines, and oils. The extra calories that the body doesn’t need to use right away are also stored as triglycerides.
High triglyceride levels are considered to be a marker (indicator) for heart diseases. A blood sample reading of less than 150 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) is considered to be the normal level of TG. Higher levels of triglycerides may thicken the walls of the arteries, thereby increasing the risk of stroke and heart diseases.
Fish oil is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, a type of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which is very important for your heart health. Fish oil can be derived from consuming oily fish like mackerel and salmon or through supplements. Some fish oil products are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as prescription medications to lower triglycerides levels.
But, a recent study published in the journal PLOS Genetics claims that “taking fish oil only provides health benefits if you have the right genetic makeup.”
The study focussed on the effects of fish oil on triglyceride levels in the blood. The study also examined the levels of the other three blood lipids - high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and total cholesterol. All these types of fats (lipids) are biomarkers for heart diseases.
The study analyzed the data of 70,000 individuals taken from UK Biobank. The study cohort was divided into two - those who took fish oil supplements (around 11,000) and those who didn’t.
After running over 64 million tests, it was found that people on fish supplements who experienced a reduction in their triglyceride levels had a specific genotype of the GJB2 gene.
Individuals with the AG genotype who took fish oil decreased their triglycerides.
The study further revealed that individuals with the AA genotype who took fish oil had slightly elevated levels of triglycerides. The effects of fish oil on triglycerides in people with GG type could not be determined as present in the variant rs112803755. So, if you have your DNA raw data file with you, you can look up this rsID to find out your genotype!
Apart from fish oil, there are also other effective methods to reduce your triglyceride levels. Some of them include:
Limiting your sugar intake
Excess sugar in your diet is turned into triglycerides, elevated levels of which are not good for your heart health. According to a study, replacing your sugary beverages with water can decrease your triglyceride levels by as much as 29 mg/dL.
Adopting a low-carb diet
The extra carbs in your diet are also converted into and stored as triglycerides. Following a low-carb diet has proven to be much more effective than following a low-fat diet in terms of reducing triglyceride levels.
Exercising regularly
HDL cholesterol is a type of good cholesterol. Increasing HDL levels can both help reduce triglyceride levels as well as counteract the effects of high triglycerides. Jogging for even two hours per week can reduce the levels of triglycerides.
Limiting Alcohol Intake
Alcohol is high in sugar and calories. If they are not used up by the body, they are converted into triglycerides. According to studies, even moderate alcohol consumption can increase your triglyceride levels by as much as 53%. This applies to people with normal triglyceride levels as well!
Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain a balance. Metabolism is the combination of various functions in your body. The rate at which these processes occur is termed your metabolic rate. The food you eat is broken down and converted into energy. The breakdown of nutrients present in food and the formation of useful products for energy is metabolism. Your body breaks down nutrients into food and converts them into energy or heat. The extra nutrients are stored as fat for later use.
Metabolism is broadly categorized into:
1. Anabolism - the body utilizes the energy from nutrient breakdown to form complex molecules needed for daily functioning
2. Catabolism - the breakdown of food components or nutrients into simpler form to produce the energy needed for daily functioning
Some people have a faster metabolism than others. It varies from person to person, depending on a lot of factors.
Resting Metabolic Rate, or RMR for short, is the rate at which your body burns energy when at rest. Knowing your RMR will help you understand the energy needed by your body to perform basic life-sustaining functions like breathing, circulating blood, nutrient processing, cell growth, and functioning.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) and RMR are slightly different. BMR is the minimum rate at which your body burns just enough calories to exist. RMR is a good estimate of your BMR.
By knowing your metabolic rate, you understand how many calories you burn and what your calorie intake needs to be to remain fit. It can help you devise a diet and exercise plan to remain healthy, stay fit and perform better.
Exercise helps you maintain weight and also can help change your metabolic rate. By building muscle through exercise, you can increase your BMR. The more intense your workout is, the longer your body takes to recover, the metabolism will increase more.
Exercises that increase muscle mass can help increase the resting metabolic rate also. The effect of exercise on metabolic rate increases with an increase in the intensity of the training.
The BMR of an average man is around 7,100 kJ per day, while that of a woman is 5,900 kJ per day. The expenditure of energy is continuous during the day; the rate varies and is found to be at its lowest early in the morning.
BMR is usually estimated through the Harris-Benedict formula revised in 1990. The formula is gender-specific. You can calculate it on your own. All you need is your weight, height, age, and a little bit of math. The formula is given below.
Women
BMR = (10 × weight in kg) + (6.25 × height in cm) - (5 × age in years) - 161
Men
BMR = (10 × weight in kg) + (6.25 × height in cm) - (5 × age in years) + 5
The UCP1gene encodes the uncoupling protein, which plays a role in generating heat by allowing fast substrate oxidation and lower ATP production in brown adipose tissue. It is responsible for adaptation to cold climates. Variants in this gene are associated with metabolism.
*rs1800592 *
rs1800592 is an SNP found in the UCP1 gene. The A allele is associated with a higher metabolic rate and slower weight gain compared to the G allele.
The GPR158 gene encodes a protein called G-protein coupled receptor 158, which is highly expressed in the brain. It is known to influence the risk of obesity in mice. Variants in this gene are found to be associated with energy expenditure.
rs11014566
rs11014566 is an SNP in the GPR158 gene. People with the GG genotype were found to have lower energy expenditure, higher BMI, and higher fat mass compared to people with the AA genotype. This is seen in American Indians.
A number of factors other than genetics influences metabolic rate. These include
- Age: Metabolism decreases with age due to gain in fat, loss of muscle, and decrease in physical activity. This means that the metabolic rate will also decrease with age.
- Gender: Generally, men have a faster metabolism than women because they tend to have more lean body mass and testosterone and lesser estrogen.
- Drugs: Nicotine and caffeine tend to increase metabolic rate.
- Body composition: Larger people tend to have a higher RMR. People with more lean muscle tissue and lesser fat have a higher RMR.
- Diet: A balanced diet can help you achieve optimal RMR. Fasting, starving, or crash dieting leads to loss of lean muscle mass and a decrease in RMR.
- Body temperature: Increase in body temperature increases RMR.
- Physical activity: Exercise done regularly increases muscle mass and can increase your RMR also.
Working out can help you stay fit and healthy and increase your metabolism, thereby increasing the resting metabolic rate. Here are a few things that you can do to increase metabolic rate:
- Include plenty of proteins in your meal. It leads to a rise in the thermic effect of food, which is the extra calories needed to digest and absorb the nutrients in food. It also prevents muscle loss due to dieting and increases your metabolism.
- HIIT (High-Intensity Interval Training) workouts involve quick and intense energy bursts. Research shows that it helps boost metabolic rate after training.
- Lifting weights helps build and maintain muscle mass and increase metabolic rate. It also helps combat the drop in metabolism that occurs after weight loss.
- According to a review, resistance training can reduce fat mass and improve lean body mass, resulting in an increase in basal metabolic rate.
- Make sure you get adequate sleep. Sleep deprivation has negative effects on metabolism and is a risk factor for obesity.
- Research shows that drinking coffee can increase your metabolism and promote the burning of fats.
https://www.healthline.com/health/what-is-basal-metabolic-rate
https://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/guide/how-to-boost-your-metabolism
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2305711/
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/ConditionsAndTreatments/metabolism
Fats are an essential component of your diet, and omega-3, 6, and 9 are important dietary fats. Each of these fatty acids has health benefits when consumed in the right balance. Any imbalance in these fatty acids can result in many health conditions and diseases.
Omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and omega-6 (linoleic acid) fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids. Numbers 3 and 6 in the name of these fatty acids indicate the position of the final double bond in the chemical structure of the fatty acids. They are known as ‘poly’ unsaturated because they have many double bonds. Both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are termed essential acids because our body cannot produce them. They need to be obtained through diet or supplements.
It is important to maintain a balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. One must consume more omega-3 than omega-6. A reversed ratio of these fatty acids can result in chronic inflammation and diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, atherosclerosis, etc. This occurs because linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid compete for metabolism by the enzyme delta-6-desaturase. A higher intake of linoleic acid or omega-6 can reduce the amount of the delta-6-desaturase enzyme left for the metabolism of alpha-linoleic acid or omega-3. This can cause chronic health conditions in the body. Therefore, it is important to maintain a healthy ‘ideal’ ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Both omega-3 and 6-fatty acids are required by our body, and they play different roles. Both these essential fatty acids can be used to produce other fatty acids. They are also required for growth and repair in the body.
Omega-3 fatty acids form an integral part of cell membranes. The omega-3 fatty acid is known to have anti-inflammatory properties, regulates blood pressure, and prevents fatal heart diseases. In fact, studies are focused on studying how omega-3 can protect one from diabetes and some types of cancer.
Omega-6 fatty acids are said to provide energy and linoleic acid is the most common omega-6 fatty acid. Excessive consumption of omega-6 can cause increased blood pressure, the formation of blood clots, and increased water retention.
Health Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids:
- Help fight depression
- Promote brain health during pregnancy and right after birth
- Improve vision
- Reduce the risk of heart diseases
- Reduce symptoms of metabolic syndrome
- Help fight inflammation
- Prevent autoimmune diseases
- Reduce inflammation and inflammatory conditions in the body
- God for your joints
- Known to improve sleep
- Reduce the risk of cancer
Health Benefits of Omega-6 Fatty Acids:
There are no specific numbers of Recommended Dietary Intake(RDI) of omega-3 fatty acids, but the Adequate Intake of this essential fatty acid as given by the Board of Institute of Medicine is:
- Adult Males: 1.6 g/day
- Adult Females: 1.1 g/day
- Pregnancy: 1.4 g/day
- Lactation: 1.3 g/day
According to the Food and Nutrition Board of the US Institute of Medicine, the Adequate Intake of omega-6 fatty acid for 19-50 years age group is:
The FADS2 or the Fatty Acid Desaturase 2 Gene provides instructions for the preparation of the delta-6-desaturase enzyme. Delta-5 and delta-6-desaturase are the enzymes that are part of the slowest step in the production of polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
rs3834458
rs3834458 is a single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP in the FADS2 gene. The T allele of this SNP plays a role in the reduced activity of delta-6-desaturase. This may lead to higher omega-3 and omega-6 levels in the body.
Mutations or changes in the MTHFR or methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene results in an excessive build-up of homocysteine in the blood and reduces levels of folates and other vitamins.
rs4846052
rs4846052 is an SNP located on chromosome 1 and associated with the _MTHFR _ gene. The different forms or genotypes (TT, CT, and CC) of this SNP were associated with PUFA levels in red blood cells (RBCs). Higher levels of RBC DHA (Docosahexaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid), EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid), ARA (Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid), and linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid) and were observed for the TT genotype versus TC and CC genotypes.
While the metabolism of these fatty acids is dependent upon genetics, there are few non-genetic factors that affect one’s omega-3 and omega-6 levels in the body.
Since diet is the primary source of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, the levels of these fatty acids and their right ratio is dependent upon the foods consumed by an individual.
Many conditions like pregnancy or other metabolic disorders require an additional supplement of omega-3 and omega-6 to maintain their optimum levels in the blood. Therefore, in these individuals, the supplements influence the levels of omega-3 and omega-6.
Regular exercise and workouts help maintain the right ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the blood.
Many systemic conditions can alter the metabolism of omega-3 and omega-6, thereby affecting their levels in the body.
Though omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential, you will be surprised to know that nearly 90% of the population falls short of their target intake. A reduced level of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids results in a deficiency. Common deficiency symptoms of these fatty acids include:
- Fatigue
- Changes in skin, hair, and nails
- Decreased concentration and attentive power
- Leg cramps and joint aches
- Changes in the menstrual cycle in women
- An increased risk of cardiovascular diseases
- Feeling low and depressed
The goal here is to maintain a healthy omega-3/omega-6 ratio. Here are a few recommendations to improve your omega-3 and omega-6 levels:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31487670/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31671528/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31671528/
https://bmcgenomdata.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2156-15-25
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6424014/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336902646_Single_Nucleotide_Polymorphisms_in_PEMT_and_MTHFR_Genes_are_Associated_with_Omega_3_and_6_Fatty_Acid_Levels_in_the_Red_Blood_Cells_of_Children_with_Obesity
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336605976_Single_nucleotide_polymorphisms_in_PEMT_gene_associate_with_different_omega_3_and_6_fatty_acids_levels_in_red_blood_cells_in_overweight_children
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/omega-3-6-9-overview#food-sources
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/17-health-benefits-of-omega-3#TOC_TITLE_HDR_17
When an individual feels low or encounters negative emotions, the feeling is often accompanied by emptiness. Food is believed to fill that void by providing temporary pleasure and satisfaction. This practice of reaching out to food to suppress or soothe our negative thoughts can be called emotional eating.
Finding comfort in food might seem normal but can lead to several complications if the individual loses control over how much or what he eats.
Conditions like compulsive eating or binge-eating are subtypes of emotional eating. They occur only in extreme cases, wherein the individual bing-eats large portions as opposed to what’s optimum. About 3.5% of women and 2% of men in the US are diagnosed with binge-eating disorder at some point in their life.
So, it is clear that overeating is linked to emotional eating, but there is more to it; mind you, emotional eating is a very broad term. The interplay of foods and moods is extensive. We all enjoy a variety of foods at different time points. When people find themselves in a negative space, they automatically reach out to a candy bar or sugary snack to combat negativity.
But, one can argue that eating indulgent foods can also be triggered during events of happiness, and that is partially true. However, we are more likely to pick grapes over chocolates when in a neutral mood. This is because we often think of the long-term perspective when we are happy and the present/near-term events when we are sad. And, in such times, we tend to indulge in quick pleasures to absolve ourselves of the momentary pain.
Emotional eating is triggered by certain reward systems in the brain. Let’s understand how these psychological factors alter our eating episodes. Motivation (wanting), outcome (liking), memory (learning), habituation (adapting) are the four factors that respond to cues like food, alcohol, drug, money, etc.
Poor food memory is known to alter food consumption levels; sugary or carbohydrate-rich items, especially, tend to impair memory, leading to vicious cycles of overeating. This is because our brain remembers the satiating effects of a particular meal and registers an expectation in the future food intake. This influence in our eating experiences, therefore, plays a role in decision making during mealtime.
One of the main properties of food is its palatability that produces a sense of pleasure and addiction. Overeating of palatable foods can be triggered by the failure to downregulate the “wanting” and “liking” of the foods we consume.
Coupled with emotional biases, we tend to binge-eat without attending to our “wants” and “likes.” Many research studies suggest that obese people, more often than not, pay little attention to their food cues, while leaner people show a larger bias to their food cues. Their food consumption is a function of eating to satiety; in other words, they eat food only when hungry.
Appetitive responses to different foods vary and are habituated as they are eaten. It is a simple form of learning that limits the quantity or size of food that we eat. As we consume newer food varieties, we take more than optimum quantities and lose habitation, leading to increased meal sizes and overeating.
Dopamine, the ‘happy hormone,’ is an important neurotransmitter crucial for emotional and mental wellbeing. The DRD2 gene encodes the D2 Dopamine receptor. DRD2 variants can affect the D2 receptor activity and result in addictive or reward-dependent behaviors. Individuals carrying this variation run the risk of over-eating disorders as well as obesity. Such individuals consume palatable foods to compensate for the improper functioning of dopamine, especially during emotional times.
rs1800497
rs1800497 is an SNP in the DRD2 gene. It is also known as the TaqIA (or Taq1A) polymorphism. The A1 or the T allele of this SNP is associated with a reduced number of dopamine binding sites in the brain.
According to a study, the presence of even one copy of the A1 or T allele was associated with an increased risk for emotional eating.
### ADIPOQ Gene and Emotional Eating
Adiponectin is a 247-amino acid peptide that circulates in large amounts in plasma. The adipocytes (fat cells) play a crucial role in multiple functions like anti-inflammation, cardioprotection, etc., and it is known to regulate energy homeostasis and feeding behavior. Altered circulating adiponectin levels can lead to human eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa (binge eating). Not only does it alter the eating cycles, but it is also observed to have effects on the psychological functioning and emotional health of humans.
rs1501299
rs1501299 is an SNP in the ADIPOQ gene. It is also annotated as c.276G>T.
A study analyzed the emotional eating behavior in young Nigerian adults. It was found that the T-allele in rs1501299 was associated with a decreased risk for emotional eating in the codominant condition - that is, GT when compared to GG and TT types.
Basically, any negative emotion is a contributor to emotional eating.
- Can be a symptom of atypical depression
- Uncontrolled stress can trigger the release of cortisol hormone, which can amp up your appetite
- An inability to express your emotions can lead to you stuffing them down. This can lead to uncomfortable feelings that may make you combat them with food.
- Childhood habits of being rewarded with foods like ice cream when on good behavior often get carried over to adulthood.
- Overindulging in food can often happen when others around you also overeat. This is often seen in social gatherings.
By not indulging in the ‘trigger emotions,’ even the most painful situations can be handled with ease. Following these tips can help reduce those curveballs and curb your intentions of excessive eating:
Practice mindful eating
When we feed our emotions with food, we do so in a quick manner to bulldoze through the pain, but we can certainly regulate that feeling by consciously judging our own decisions just seconds before eating. So, slow down, savor your food, and practice mindful eating.
Daily exercise
Make daily exercise part of the routine because physical activities can do wonders to your body and mind and act as a powerful stress-buster. Getting into a habit of exercising can help balance out your emotional triggers.
Avoid binge-eating while working
This often becomes a habit whereby people eat mindlessly while working or watching movies, and this can disrupt your attention towards the type or quantity of food that you consume. Over time, it is easy to get habituated to eating without a conscious mind. Avoid doing this to regulate eating habits.
Connect with important people
Connecting with people that are positive and are mindful can help you become more watchful of your eating habits.
Lower the intake of sugary substances
These high carbs, sugary foods can impair the hypothalamus’s function in encoding memory based on foods, leading to either improper eating or binge-eating in the subsequent intakes.
Make time for relaxation
To decompress and unwind, break from responsibilities, and relax; this can awaken you from your daily hustle and stress.
https://www.snpedia.com/index.php/Rs1800497
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19925838/
https://jmhg.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43042-019-0022-5
https://www.snpedia.com/index.php/rs1501299
https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/why-stress-causes-people-to-overeat
Unlike most amino acids, homocysteine is a harmful amino acid that is not involved in protein synthesis. It is usually formed in the body.
This harmful amino acid is converted into either cysteine or methionine, amino acids that are safe for the body. There are different interdependent pathways involved in the conversion of homocysteine. B complex vitamins are involved in these pathways.
The normal range of homocysteine levels in the blood is less than 15 micromoles per liter (mcmol/L) of blood. Some people have higher levels of homocysteine, and this leads to hyperhomocysteinemia. High levels of homocysteine are further divided into three categories
- Moderate: 15-30 mcmol/L
- Intermediate: 30-100 mcmol/L
- Severe: Levels greater than 100 mcmol/L
High levels of homocysteine are linked to an increased risk of heart disease and certain vitamin deficiencies.
Elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood are harmful to the body. This condition is termed hyperhomocysteinemia.
According to a review published in 2017 in the journal Nutrition and Metabolism, higher homocysteine levels may be a risk factor for developing certain conditions like heart disease or nutritional deficiencies.
A study reported that higher levels of homocysteine and folate deficiency are positively associated with an overall risk of developing cancer with little effect on the type of cancer.
Hyperhomocysteinemia has also been linked to osteoporosis and the progression of bone disease.
Other potential conditions associated with hyperhomocysteinemia include dementia, stroke, atherosclerosis, blood clot formation, heart attack, hypothyroidism, and epilepsy.
A family history of hyperhomocysteinemia can increase your risk of the condition. Some of the genes needed for the breakdown of homocysteine are mentioned below.
The MTHFR gene contains instructions for the production of an enzyme known as methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. This enzyme is involved in the processing of amino acids through the MTHFR pathway. In this pathway, a compound known as 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate is converted into 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, which is the active form of vitamin B9. This conversion is needed for the conversion of homocysteine into methionine. Changes (or variations) in this gene can affect enzyme activity and homocysteine levels.
rs1801133
rs1801133is a well-known single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNP found in the MTHFR gene. There are three forms (or genotypes) of this SNP:
- TT - 10-20% efficiency of folic acid processing, higher levels of homocysteine, lower levels of vitamin B12 and folate.
- CT - 65% efficiency of folic acid processing
- CC - highest efficiency of folic acid processing
People with the CC genotype are found to have normal homocysteine levels.
The MTR gene contains instructions for the production of the enzyme methionine synthase. This enzyme is needed for the conversion of homocysteine into methionine. This enzyme requires a form of vitamin B12 to function properly.
rs2275565
rs2275565 is an SNP found in the MTR gene. The T allele is found to be the risk allele and is associated with higher levels of homocysteine.
The BHMT gene contains instructions for the production of an enzyme known as Betaine-Homocysteine S-Methyltransferase. This enzyme is needed for the conversion of homocysteine into methionine.
rs3733890
rs3733890 is an SNP found in the BHMT gene. The A allele is found to be the risk allele and plays a role in elevated homocysteine levels.
Vitamin deficiency
Vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate deficiency are the common causes of high homocysteine levels. These vitamins are involved in the pathways responsible for the conversion of homocysteine into safer amino acids, methionine and cysteine.
Other underlying health conditions
Kidney disease, psoriasis, Crohn’s disease, and low thyroid hormone levels can lead to high levels of homocysteine.
Smoking
Studies show that smoking can lead to higher levels of homocysteine.
Alcohol
Chronic alcohol consumption is found to increase homocysteine levels and reduce vitamin B levels.
Age
Levels of homocysteine may also increase with age. A study reported that homocysteine levels were higher in patients above 65 years of age.
The symptoms vary from person to person and maybe very minimal in certain cases. Symptoms are more prevalent in children when compared to adults. The symptoms usually depend on the underlying vitamin deficiency that results in higher homocysteine levels. Common symptoms include:
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Weakness
- Dizziness
- Soreness
If you have been diagnosed with a vitamin deficiency causing an increase in homocysteine levels, change your diet to include rich sources of vitamin B and folic acid.
Folate-rich foods include:
- Legumes
- Kidney beans, soybeans
- Egg
- Leafy greens, asparagus, broccoli, root vegetables
- Citrus fruits, papaya, avocado, banana
- Salmon, beef liver
- Nuts and seed
- Fortified breakfast cereals
Vitamin B6-rich foods include:
- Peanuts
- Chicken, turkey
- Soya beans
- Bananas
- Potatoes
- Fortified breakfast cereals
Vitamin B12-rich foods include:
- Dairy products
- Organ meat
- Fortified breakfast cereals
- Eggs
- Fish
Doctors may also recommend supplements to meet your vitamin needs.
If people have hyperhomocysteinemia as a result of an underlying health condition, treatment is focused on managing that condition.
A simple blood test is usually recommended to test for homocysteine levels in the blood. Blood tests can detect any vitamin deficiencies that you might have. Based on the results, your doctor may recommend additional tests to find the underlying cause.
https://www.healthline.com/health/homocysteine-levels
https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/homocysteine-risk
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/homocysteine-levels
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318138754_Methylenetetrahydrofolate_reductase_MTHFR_polymorphisms_and_predisposition_to_different_multifactorial_disorders
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5741875/
Vitamin B2, also called riboflavin, is an essential nutrient needed for human health. It is one of the eight B vitamins. All the B vitamins are important for good health. Vitamin B2 is a water-soluble vitamin. Being a water-soluble vitamin, it can be excreted out of the body easily. Your body only stores a small amount of riboflavin, and hence, you need to include riboflavin in your diet every day.
Vitamin B2 plays a role in
- Maintaining tissues
- Energy metabolism
- Secretion of mucus that prevents dryness induced oil secretion that leads to acne
- Absorption of zinc, which is essential for the skin
- Maintaining the structural integrity of the skin
- Protects cells from oxidative damage
- Maintenance of red blood cells
- Keeping the skin healthy
The recommended daily intake of vitamin B2 is as follows:
For adults
1.3 mg for healthy men
1.1 mg for healthy women
1.4 mg for pregnant women
1.6 mg for lactating women
For children
0.3 mg for infants up to 6 months
0.4 mg for infants between 6-12 months
0.5 mg for 1-3-year-old children
0.6 mg for 4-8-year-old children
0.9 mg for 9-13-year-old children
1.3 mg for 14-18-year-old males
1.0 mg for 14-18-year-old females
People of certain genetic types may need more vitamin B2 due to the inefficient transport in their bodies. Certain genes can help determine your risk for vitamin deficiency.
The MTHFR gene produces an enzyme called methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. This enzyme is involved in the methylation cycle. MTHFR activates 5, 10-methylene TetraHydroFolate(THF) to 5-methyl THF, and this is needed for the conversion of homocysteine to methionine.
This protein is also involved in the conversion of folate to SAMe, which is involved in the methylation of DNA as it is the universal methylation donor. The methylation cycle is essential for various functions in the body.
Vitamin B2 is involved in the metabolism of homocysteine along with Vitamin B1. Vitamin B2 deficiency can lead to high levels of homocysteine, which is a harmful amino acid.
rs1801133
rs1801133 is a single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP found in the MTFHR gene.It is also referred to as C677T. The T allele decreases enzyme activity, with only a 10-20% efficiency in folate processing and leads to high levels of 0f homocysteine in the body.
Vitamin B2 deficiency is not very common in the US as most of the food items like milk and whole-grain cereals, which are widely consumed, contain good levels of vitamin B2.
Vitamin B2 deficiency can lead to
- Cracked lips
- Itching of skin
- Scrotal Dermatitis
- Inflammation of mouth lining
- Inflammation of the tongue
- Scaly skin
- Hair loss
- Reproductive problems
Certain food items contain vitamin B2. These include:
- Eggs
- Kidney and liver meat, lean meats
- Green vegetables like broccoli and spinach
- Cereals, grains, and bread
- Milk and yogurt
- Lima beans and peas
- Avocados
- Artichokes
- Nuts
Riboflavin is water-soluble. While cooking food, especially boiling, vitamin content may reduce. Make sure to include a daily supply of vitamin B2 rich foods to keep your skin healthy. A balanced diet is always important to keep your skin and other parts of the body healthy.
Your doctor may prescribe certain vitamin B2 supplements to overcome your deficiency apart from your diet.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/219561
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470460/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25322900
https://www.healthline.com/health/symptoms-of-vitamin-b-deficiency
https://www.bebeautiful.in/all-things-skin/everyday/benefits-of-vitamin-b-complex
https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Riboflavin-HealthProfessional/
Cilantro is a herb popularly used in cooking. The names cilantro and coriander are commonly used interchangeably. Both cilantro and coriander come from the same plant species, Coriandrum sativum. The nutrient profiles of the plant and seed are different.
In North America, cilantro refers to the leaves and stem, while coriander refers to the seeds. In other countries like India, coriander refers to the leaves and stem, and the seeds are called coriander seeds. Cilantro is the Spanish word for coriander.
Cilantro has a fragrant, citrusy flavor. The coriander seeds have a warm, spicy, earthy aroma with a hint of citrus. It is usually paired with cumin and used as a base ingredient for making spice mixes.
Even though cilantro is properly used in several cuisines all over the world, some people do not like the taste of it. They find the taste soapy and revolting. This is termed as Cilantro Taste Aversion.
Even the famous American chef, Julia Child, did not have a liking for cilantro. She said the best way to deal with it in food is to pick it up and throw it on the floor.
Cilantro contains several aldehydes. Aldehydes taste soapy in nature. People with cilantro taste aversion perceive the taste of these aldehydes found in cilantro.
The number of people with this aversion is less in Central America and India, where this herb is very popular. Nearly 20% of the East Asian population are found to experience the soapy-taste of cilantro.
Why do some people hate the taste of cilantro but others don’t?
The answer to this question lies in genes.
Cilantro taste preference can be explained by genetics. The olfactory receptors influence our sense of smell, which directly alters our taste perception. Variations in olfactory-receptor genes can affect the way we perceive the taste of certain food items.
The OR6A2 gene is an olfactory-receptor gene. It carries instructions for the production of Olfactory Receptor Family 6 Subfamily A Member 2 protein. This protein has a high-binding affinity to soapy-flavored aldehydes like the ones found in cilantro. Individuals with an aversion to the taste of cilantro are found to have a variation in this gene.
rs72921001
rs72921001 is a single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP in the OR6A2 gene. Individuals with the A allele of this gene are at a lower risk of detecting a soapy taste.
The best way to deal with the soapy taste of cilantro is to avoid using it in meals or picking it out of your plate as Julia Child said.
Certain other ways to deal with this include
Some restaurants use a mix of parsley, tarragon, and dill. Lime of lemon zest can be used to substitute for the bright, citrusy flavor of cilantro. Carrot tops, mint, basil, or Thai basil are also used in certain dishes.
Microgreens are becoming increasingly popular. Micro cilantro tastes less soapy than mature cilantro leaves. Coriander seeds may also have a more palatable flavor compared to cilantro.
Crushing cilantro may help eliminate the soapy-tasting aldehydes. Using cilantro in chutneys and sauces dampens the soapy flavor and can help you get used to the herb.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1209.2096
https://flavourjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2044-7248-1-22
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/277627
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/cilantro-vs-coriander#TOC_TITLE_HDR_3
https://www.britannica.com/story/why-does-cilantro-taste-like-soap-to-some-people
https://blog.23andme.com/23andme-research/cilantro-love-hate-genetic-trait/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/voraciously/wp/2019/07/08/how-to-manage-or-even-conquer-your-cilantro-hatred/
Adiponectin is a protein hormone secreted primarily by adipocytes or fat cells. Adipocytes are found in the adipose tissue. Certain other cell types in the muscle and brain can also produce this hormone.
This hormone plays a role in the metabolism of lipids and glucose. Adiponectin also influences the body’s response to insulin and can reduce cholesterol buildup in the arteries and inflammation.
The reference range for adiponectin levels is based on the Body Mass Index.
1. BMI <25 - Males: 4-26 mcg/mL and females: 5-37 mcg/mL
2. BMI 25-30 - Males: 4-20 mcg/mL and females: 5-28 mcg/mL
3. BMI >30 - Males: 2-20 mcg/mL and females: 4-22 mcg/mL
Research shows that genetic changes can affect adiponectin levels. A few of the genes influencing adiponectin levels are described below.
The ADIPOQ gene carries instructions to produce the protein hormone, adiponectin. Variants or changes in this gene affect adiponectin levels.
rs17366568
rs17366568 is a single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNP found in the ADIPOQ gene.People with the A allele were found to have lower adiponectin levels.
rs6773957
rs6773957 is an SNP in the ADIPOQ gene. People with the G allele were found to have lower levels of adiponectin, and people with the A allele were found to have higher levels of adiponectin.
The PAPD4 gene carries instructions for the production of a protein known as PAP-Associated Domain-Containing Protein 4. This protein is an RNA polymerase.
rs13358260
rs13358260 is an SNP in the PAPD4 gene. The C allele is found to affect serum adiponectin levels.
The KCNK9 gene carries instructions for the production of a protein called TASK3. This protein is a potassium channel and is involved in the transport of potassium ions in and out of cells.
rs2468677
rs2468677 is an SNP in the KCNK9 gene. The G allele is found to affect serum adiponectin levels.
Gender
Serum adiponectin levels were found to be higher in females.
Health conditions
People with certain health conditions like obesity, diabetes, or higher risk of cardiovascular diseases are found to have lower levels of adiponectin.
Hypoadiponectinemia is a clinical term that refers to low levels of adiponectin in the body. Lower levels of adiponectin are found in people with obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.
Lower levels have also been found in people with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease(NAFLD).
Studies show that lower levels of adiponectin are related to visceral fat accumulation.
Visceral fat is a type of fat found in the body. Also known as belly fat, it is stored in the abdominal region and around all the major organs like the liver, kidneys, intestines, pancreas, and heart. Accumulation of visceral fat can increase the risk of developing insulin resistance, diabetes, heart disease, low levels of HDL cholesterol (good cholesterol), high blood pressure, and even some cancers.
Studies show that higher levels of adiponectin have a protective effect and lower the risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
Higher levels of adiponectin also promote the synthesis of good cholesterol, HDL cholesterol in the body.
Changing your diet to follow a healthy and balanced diet is a means of managing adiponectin levels.
- Monounsaturated fats such as fish oil, avocados, olive oil, omega-3 can boost adiponectin levels.
- Make sure you include enough sources of dietary fiber in your meal.
- People who regularly consume caffeine are found to have higher adiponectin levels.
- Curcumin, found in turmeric, can boost adiponectin levels.
- Moderate consumption of ethanol-containing beverages is found to increase adiponectin levels depending on the type of beverage and gender.
- Resveratrol, a compound found in grapes, stimulates the production of adiponectin.
- Zinc supplementation can also restore adiponectin levels to normal in patients with type 2 diabetes.
- A study shows that limiting consumption of carbohydrates to dinner time can increase adiponectin levels and lower the risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Adiponectin levels are determined using a blood test. Levels in the blood are measured using a method called ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay). ELISA is a plate-based assay technique in which antibodies are usually used to detect the target molecule, such as proteins.
Your doctor may ask you to test for adiponectin levels as a biomarker for certain metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes.
